Gang Leader for a Day Essay

In so doing, Venkatesh revealed a complex mix of subculture (the Black Kings were a highly organised gang with a clear hierarchy, recruitment rituals, and socialisation processes) and culture – the gang were embedded in the day-to-day life of the Projects. Although their primary purpose was to make money through selling drugs (mainly crack cocaine), they also performed a range of secondary functions within their territory – from the provision of protection for Project residents from other gangs, through the organisation of social activities (such as Basketball games), to policing the Projects (involving things like the provision of shelter for â€Å"the homeless†.). a. Ethnicity: His South Asian ethnic background allowed him to pass among the overwhelmingly African-American subjects of his study in a way that would have probably been denied to him if he had been white (since the only â€Å"white faces† in the Projects were those of the police – and, with one or two notable exceptions, they rarely ventured into the place except to make arrests and, it is implicitly suggested, extort protection money). Venkatesh’s initial encounter with the Black Kings was one where he was mistaken for a member of a rival (Mexican) gang – his ethnicity was variously considered by the people in the Projects to be â€Å"Mexican, â€Å"Spanish† or the largely-ubiquitous label  Ã¢â‚¬Å"Ay-rab†. The fact he was relatively young, casually dressed and a student at the University also gave him credentials accepted by both those in the gang and the Projects generally – something that leads into a second consideration: His ethics, however, are questionable. He started doing research and had not gotten human subjects approval. He deceived his advisor and dissertation committee about the extent that he was embedded into the gang. He saw clearly illegal activities take place and never told anyone, and once or twice did something illegal. Their claims are not only that he was unethical, but that he put people’s lives at risk, that he lied to his main informant, JT, to get into the research site, and the only person who has benefited from the book is Venkatesh. To be fair, Venkatesh did teach a course when asked to, and on occasion he brought food or drink (often alcohol) to parties and such. The tenured radical folks mention approvingly  Mitch Duneier’s Sidewalk (another great book) about homeless people and how he shares his royalties with those whom he interviewed The book’s main focus is on race, as it examines the day-to-day struggles of the virtually all African-American residents in a poor housing project. However, there is much in the book that could be mined for courses in deviance, race⠁„ethnicity, inequality, research methods, sociology of organizations, and to a lesser extent, gender. Issues of class, race and identity also surface, as Venkatesh (the child of middle-class South Asian immigrants) discusses his role as a â€Å"brown man† Southern Californian, and how his experiences shape his academic vantage point. Venkatesh sets up a clearly delineated debate on the qualitative-quantitative divide, coming down squarely on the qualitative side, learning early that the question â€Å"How does it feel to be Black and poor?† is n ot easily answered using a Likert scale. He deftly highlights issues of ethics, identity, race⠁„class⠁„gender dynamics in data collection, the realities of ethnographic work, and the value and use of qualitative versus quantitative methods of collecting data. Gang Leader for a Day throws into sharp relief the thorny issues of conducting ethical research. For instance, Venkatesh struggles with maintaining allegiances with powerful community members, while trying to forge close ties with less powerful residents. Venkatesh gives refreshingly honest, clear examples of his missteps. For instance, he focuses the target of his research on the underground economy of three high-rise buildings within the gang’s territory, and collects detailed information from residents about how much money they make, expenses they incur and so forth. Venkatesh talks with pimps and prostitutes, as well as those who sold food or offered child care in their apartments, styled hair, prepared taxes, offered psychic fortune telling, performed carpentry, fixed cars, collected scrap metal, as well as a host of other off-the-books businesses. Venkatesh provides a vivid, gritty account of life in a notorious Chicago housing project. His book interweaves issues of social class, race, ethnicity, gender, crime, deviance, and the study of organizations. Moreover, his perspective on the discipline is a compelling one; a self-described â€Å"rogue† sociologist,

Johannes Brahms symphony no. 4

Johannes Brahms symphony no. 4, opus 98, is a masterpiece that stays in the annals of history of music and the history of symphony. Completed in the 19-th century, it had such glorious predecessors as Beethoven’s symphonies. Therefore, in the times of Brahms, the symphony was considered the proper of great Beethoven and anybody who had courage to compose in this genre would inevitably face the possibility to be compared with Beethoven.Johannes Brahms worried that he was not worthy of the musical tradition set by Haydn, Mozart, and Beethoven. One of the most unfortunate effects of his lack of confidence was expressed in an unwillingness to compose a symphony because he was afraid of being compared unfavourably to those masters, waiting until he was 43 years old to complete his First Symphony. However, once he had completed that initial symphony, he quickly adapted to the form, producing his remaining three symphonies in the space of only nine years.Each seemed to be more succes sful than its predecessors were; each introduced more depth and innovation from the most complex of the 19-th century composers. Just as Brahms's First and Second symphonies appeared in rapid succession as a contrasting pair, so did the Third and Fourth. The Third was finished in the summer of 1883 and the Fourth was begun the following summer. The first mention of the Fourth Symphony is in a letter dated 19 August 1884 from Brahms to his publisher, Fritz Simrock; the work was completed about a year later at Miirzzuschlag in Styria.In October 1885 Brahms and Ignaz Briill gave a two-piano reading of it for a small group of friends including the critic Eduard Hanslick, the surgeon Theodor Billroth, and the historian and Haydn scholar C. F. Pohl. Brahms conducted the first orchestral performance at Meiningen on 25 October 1885 . It is very interesting to observe Brahms's progress as a symphonist. He lived in the time of romanticism in music, when considerations of form gave place to su bjective expression. F.Liszt was then creating his symphonic poems and R. Wagner produced his amazing music dramas – all works strongly colored by literary and poetic ideas, and by a very personal attitude on the part of the composer. Brahms, in his First symphony, if not an outright romanticist, is yet â€Å"romantic† in his attitude, just as Beethoven in his Fifth symphony. Later we see Brahms's progression backward – from the â€Å"romantic† to the â€Å"classic† stress. The Fourth symphony is a pure classic masterpiece.However, the symphony is not only a work of design; it has a subjective undercurrent behind itself. It is perhaps significant that Brahms, ordinarily certain of himself and his work, had misgivings and questionings about this symphony. Some find the symphony an expression of pessimism. They say that it is bitter, that it drips melancholy like the yew tree, that its thoughts are of death. In fact, by that time Brahms had lost his mother who died of a heart attack. He devoted this symphony to the memory of his mother. But pessimism is not despair.At the time when Brahms wrote this symphony, his thoughts were turning towards his own end which was near, and death must have appeared as it should appear to all of us, as a tender friend and a supreme consoler. Brahms's symphonic work embraces all that is tragic and glorious in his music. There is tragedy even in the most wonderful of these movements, where we hear yearning for things gone beyond recall, but more especially in those where he strives to renew the traditions of the classics and proves splendidly that inherited forms may be filled with new matter .Nevertheless, one may safely predict that those portions of his work which show a master's discipline and noble intention as perhaps the most impressive marks of his character, will not be held in so great and lasting an affection as those where he is wholly himself, and where only his pure and great heart, so full of riches and yet so closely guarded, is heard to beat. He deliberately took a path that led him away from the land of romance to seek the land of Bach and Beethoven with all the ardor of his soul.But the spell of the blue flower was stronger. He fancied that he had eschewed the enchantment, but this was a delusion, for he remained a romantic all his life, a dreamy enthusiast, a deep feeling recluse, who clothed in new magical sounds the voices of rustling woodlands, the radiant eyes of virginal queens, the scattered tones of lost love-songs–all this, and his own life, blessed by sorrows and raptures. It is there that he is irresistible and unforgettable.Where he played the part of â€Å"heir† he had too little to squander, though he won and consolidated precious treasure enough. Only as the eternal youth, as one wrestling and longing and drinking from abundant wellsprings, as one of the beloved fairy-tale princes of music who ever and again awaken to deliver s leeping princesses, did he in truth find the land of Bach and of Beethoven. To many listeners, the Third Symphony might have seemed like the natural goal of Brahms's development as a symphonist because it combined the simple characters of folksong and romantic.It added an intense instrumental idiom and deep sense of coherence and overall structure, resolving its tensions at the close in a manner increasingly characteristic of the expression of his most profound songs. Yet any such impression would soon have been dispelled by the symphony, which followed shortly after in 1885, for here he recalls the wealth of ideas, which characterize the Second Symphony and the earnestness, and sense of structural culmination of the First Symphony. Yet here the drama is of a different kind.It is not the classic nineteenth-century struggle from minor to major, in Brahms's case full of romantic symbols in its final stages, but rather an abstract drama, which reaches its climax through the sheer intel lectual rigor and energy of its finale rather than through any conventional symbols. It ends securely in the key in which it began, E minor. And if the Third Symphony had gained something of the personal quality of its opening from the memories of Schubert and Schumann, this goes back to memories of Beethoven and Bach.For, not only does the finale take Bach as its starting point, but the first movement takes Beethoven. As has been noted, the first subject clearly draws on the slow movement of the ‘Hammerklavier' Sonata (bars 78-86) where an identical outline appears as a consequence of the evolving influence of the interval of the third. Yet it comes through an entirely Brahms’ mediation. The setting is very close to the somber opening in which he was soon to place the first of the Motets op.110, the same key and broad shape expressing the text ‘Ich aber bin elend' – ‘But Lord, I am wretched'. Yet the symphony's is a more animated, complex type of exp ression whose distinctive two-note phrasing actually finds its closest parallel in a piece in total stylistic contrast to the motet -the Waltz in D minor, op. 39 no. 9. From this very personal stylistic chemistry, Brahms builds a movement and a work whose lofty style is closest to the Tragic Overture, a greater example of the ‘sublime style' noted in the great choral works with orchestra.And from them it takes much of its orchestral character, especially the fullness of Brahms' scoring, and the telling use of the flute, especially at bar 128 of the finale – surely a Grecian symbol. While Brahms has long since parted company with the storm and stress of the First symphony, the accents of the Fourth are in the highest degree charged with the resignation and the profound understanding that his own earnest nature and the passage of the years had brought him, and the nobility that existed under his crusty exterior.In viewing the work as a whole, its background again provides a key to its special nature and sense of direction. Indeed, it may well reveal the reverse case to that of the First Symphony, for even if it seems clear that it was the resolution of the first movement's implications that provided the compositional problem of the earlier work, it appears likely that the finale was here the starting point and thus determinant of the work's structural nature. And even if other ideas existed at this earlier stage, the special nature of the finale provided the dominant focus for their working and shape.Much of the Fourth symphony is melancholy and lamentful, but it is relieved by the consolatory beatitude of the andante and the elevating stateliness of the conclusion. The austerity with which the composer has been reproached—in many instances unjustly—is here pronounced. The solidity of the structure may be admired, but the structure itself is granitic and unrelieved. The symphony has not the epic grandeur of the first, the geniality of the second, the wealth of varied beauty that distinguishes the third.Although the precise date is not known, Brahms had shown interest in the chaconne bass of the finale of Bach's Cantata No. 150 â€Å"Nach Dir, Herr Verlanget mich† some time before the symphony's appearance. The conductor Siegfried Ochs recalls him demonstrating to Hans von Bulow the structure of the Bach movement, to which von Bulow responded coolly, arguing that it needed more than voices. Brahms agreed, commenting: â€Å"What would you say to a symphonic movement written on this theme one day? But it is too lumpish, too straightforward. It would have to be chromatically altered in some way.† Just how the alteration was effected is clear from the work, where Brahms extends the model from its five-bar length to eight bars, substituting equal dotted minims for its minim-crotchet pattern and creating a climax in the chromatic alteration of A sharp. Now it appears as leading note to the dominant, B. But how the work as a whole stood in his mind at this earlier stage is not clear. Brahms was aware of the possibility that a variation finale can be assumed from the model of Beethoven, and the St Antoni Variations had already presented a basso ostinato variation finale.Yet the precise nature of a finale, which reflected both stimuli – that of a symphonic design in a harmonically restricted form – must have occupied him for long before a solution became clear. In considering the problems, Brahms drew on a considerable knowledge of the form of the chaconne and passacaglia, as has earlier been shown. In the actual period of the work's completion, he acknowledged special interest in the Organ Passacaglia in G minor by Georg Muffat, describing it to Elizabeth von Herzogenberg in 1883 as very fine and acknowledging possession of a copy.His work on the Couperin Edition for Chrysander also gave him an acquaintance with an example from the very different tradition of the French c lavecinists through the form of the Rondeau Passacaille. But the movement for which he had the deepest feeling was the Bach Chaconne for unaccompanied violin. He wrote to Clara Schumann, to whom the arrangement for the piano, left hand, was dedicated, in the following terms: For me the Chaconne is one of the most incredible pieces of music. Using a single system for a little instrument, the man writes a whole world of the deepest and most powerful expression.If I ask myself if I had written this piece – been able to conceive it – I know for certain the emotions excited would have driven me mad. If one does not have a great violinist at hand, the most exquisite of joys is surely simply to let the Chaconne ring in one's mind. But the piece certainly entices one to occupy oneself with it somehow. From this, he concludes that the only comparable experience is to play it with the parallel restrictions of left hand alone. It seems interesting that in referring to the other w ays of imagining the work recreated he mentions the orchestra.It is not difficult to see the manner and structure of this Chaconne, which he knew so intimately, mixing with his transformation of the Bach cantata bass to provide the foundations of a movement through which both vocal and instrumental limitations are transcended in his most powerful variation structure. Heinrich Reimann gives a short description of the symphony: â€Å"A theme of the second movement constantly returns in varied form, from which the chief theme, the staccato figure given to the wind, and the melodious song of the violoncellos are derived.The third movement, allegro giocoso, sports with old-fashioned harmonies, which should not be taken too seriously† . Seen against the background of Brahms's earlier variations, this movement is unique in its observation of a clear A B A – Coda form. The contrast is provided by changes in dynamics, frequently in mode, and partly in meter. The return of the o pening introduces variation both thematically and in the scope of harmonic movement within the tight restriction of the model, taken even further in the coda.All the previous variations are continuous, though the contrast of mode to major is established from the Variation on an Original Theme. The Bach Chaconne therefore assumes great interest in its adoption of a ternary outline through contrast of mode, in its variation of harmony at the reprise (though the theme is not recalled) and in its length – both movements building to thirty variations from an eight-bar model. The form of the Chaconne is also crucial to understanding Brahms's harmonic methods.Although elements of passacaglia are used in this movement – that is of a repeated ground bass ostinato – the chief spirit of the movement is that of harmonic retention, from which the composer can dramatically move for effect. The model is compounded of Bach's bass in modified form as upper part with a Brahmsâ₠¬â„¢ bass in which descending thirds are prominent. This provides the model for the first four variations and the background to the reprise, with its increasingly free harmonic working until Brahms breaks completely away from the previous patterns in the coda, loosening the original phrasing.The intervening harmony is built either on the ground (variations 4-11, 14-16), or on pedal variants, as in the central part, variations 12-13. Thus, as in earlier variation movements, there are two harmonic models with other freer types, though it is the first, with the theme in the upper part, which has the role of articulating the large structure. This represents, therefore, a considerably more complex form than its immediate predecessor, the ostinato variations of the St Antoni Variations.In fact, Brahms brings to fulfillment the inherent influence of the chaconne, noted as early as the variations of the B flat Sextet though with the added aspect of the passacaglia reflected in the Second Se renade and the St Antoni Variations, together with the outline of sonata form. It is the latter aspect that creates the variation of the reprise, since development cannot be used in the subdued central section. Clearly, such a distinctive structure could not have provided the symphonic climax without intimate relations with the other movements.The observation of the contrapuntal connection between the descending thirds of variation 30 and the first subject of the first movement is only one of many which could be made, for this work is perhaps more subtly and comprehensively integrated than any other. Not only are thirds omnipresent in the work's thematic material – as in the bass of the model – but many other links exist, including the anticipation of the ground in the first subject (bars 9-15). Most impressive, however, is the special harmonic language of the work, which is drawn from the harmony of the model.Both plagal and Phrygian progressions contribute further to the deeply archaic quality of much of the music. For example, the first subject is built on plagal progressions and the movement ends with a very impressive plagal cadence enhanced by pedal. The harmonic language of the second movement is even more special in its modal associations, as will be shown. All these features serve to support the more obvious surface function of variation. For the principle of successive variation, which dominates the finale also, soaks the work as a whole.The links are clearest in the first movement for two principal reasons: the structure of the movement as a whole and, directly related to it, the nature of the first subject. Brahms's tendency to recall the opening material after the recapitulation where no repeat is incorporated finds a particularly plain expression in this movement, which brings an approach associated with finales – those of the First and Third Symphonies and of the Piano Quintet into the context of a symphonic first movement.Y et the method is here different, for this is no conflated development/recapitulation structure, but rather a modification of the conventional scheme, since the recapitulation follows the third tonic statement of the idea at bar 246. The special form arises from the special nature of the main subject itself, a lyric paragraph whose essential sixteen bar structure is extended by internal variation to create a sectional impression – the sense of a model which demands repetition in a way quite unlike the main subjects of the other symphonies. Thus, the movement assumes a variation-aspect at two levels.Viewed most broadly, it falls into three sections, closely related by their presentation of the same passage. Although the third statement is made more elusive by the recall of its opening phrases in augmentation, linked by figuration in the strings, the overall effect is clear when the theme resumes at bar 246. As far as the sections themselves are concerned, they also appear stron gly variational through the immediate repetition of the first theme, that of the development offering an alternative to that of the exposition, bars 145-152 comparing with bars 1-7.Thus, Brahms draws on his earlier tendency to construct the transition by variation of the first subject (compare with the Second Symphony) into a much broader context. In the sections of passing variation, which have become so characteristic, although never with the clarity and deep thematicism of, for example, bars 80-6 or 95-8, the development draws so often on variation that it directly recalls the finale.Thus, after the varied repeat of the opening of the development, bars 169-84 present another section of clear variational identity, here through motive variation of the preceding bars treated in a stretto which quickly removes the sense of accentual identity, offering yet a further example of how Brahms learned from Beethoven the art of displacing the beat through the relentless repetition of a simpl e figure. This passage is complemented at bar 192 by a more direct variation of the opening subject, the section again alternating with the marcato figure of the transition, which serves to direct and articulate the music's progress.At bar 119, the finale is even more clearly foreshadowed, mediating between the variation and the work's first subject, which it clearly outlines, drawing particularly on the original flute parts to ensure connection. In turn, the following passage from bar 237 varies the following bars, focusing on a one-bar figure, whilst recalling the color-contrast of the variations, which lead to the reprise of the finale. It is inherent in such a structure that radical alterations of the recapitulation would have disturbed the variational relationship of the first three parts.Rather, as in the finale, it is the coda, which exhibits the development quality with the most rapid modulations and intense treatment of ideas. Yet variation remains the chief model. The powe rful statement of the first subject at bar 394 is remarkable in its transformation. The theme appears in canon between the outer parts, actually retaining its identity for far longer than the ear might suggest (14 bars in all) before a bridge to an intense treatment of the transition idea of bar 414.This remarkable intensity is achieved through a use of stretto, in which Brahms seems to press to extremes the possible relationship between the harmonies permissible in his style and the logic of the contrapuntal movement, a quality that he shared to a remarkable degree with Mozart. In a period, which includes some of Brahms's most powerful first-movement codas, this is surely the most impressive in its nature and its structural function. Of the impressive central movements with which Brahms completes his overall scheme, the second relates most clearly to the principles outlined.Indeed, its leisurely first section from bar 5 parallels that of the first in its relation to earlier works. An eight-bar theme of the simplest phrasing returns after a nine-bar digression to complete an exposition in simple A B A form. The following transition proceeds again by simple variation to establish, through ideas, which relate to the parallel part of the first movement. The dominant of B for the second subject, after which there is a further variation of the first theme with descending wind figures reflects the first subject of the work and strings employ pizzicato.Bar 74 initiates an imitative development very much in the spirit of that of the finale of op. 18, after which the second subject completes the conflated scheme: 1 – tr 2 – 1 – dev – 2 – coda. Yet its straightforwardness comes into a completely different perspective when set in its harmonic context. It can be seen as perhaps the boldest and most far-reaching of Brahms's experiments with modal effects. For, the opening partly suggests a tonic C despite the preceding cadence, one interp rets the unison opening as rooted in the lower mediant of E minor.Yet at the end of the phrase, Brahms turns the closing E into the tonic of a modified sonata movement, which makes a conventional contrast (though now unusual for Brahms) with the dominant, B, for its second subject. Such an opening must have a consequence in a Brahms’ movement and the key of C returns in the closing bars as an alternate harmonization of the opening theme in succession to the chromatic harmonization of the theme in E. Thus, Brahms juxtaposes the keys of E and C through a common theme.The ‘framing' effect of the C tonality and its final resolution is evident. Whilst this passage can be seen as simply one of effect, the suggestion of a Phrygian tonality, it may also be seen in more far-reaching terms. For, unlike the other authentic modes, the dominant of the Phrygian is not on B, but on C, since it cannot form a perfect fifth from B to F sharp. Thus, though Brahms may well begin with a mer e ‘effect', the harmonic implications are readily grasped and he, though very briefly, actually contrives to close with a Phrygian aspect.The Austrian theorist Heinrich Schenker once stated that the capacity to write in the modes lay even beyond a genius like Beethoven, that the Lydian movement of op. 132 simply used modern tonality to suggest a mode through the omission of any B flat and other means. Is it not possible that Brahms's deep interest in the issue led him to go a little further in the attempt to unite modern tonality and the principles of modality in one movement? After such tonal stress, the key of the third movement appears inevitable.Yet in its manner, the movement stands in strong contrast to the parallel movements of the later works. As is often pointed out, Brahms avoids the scherzo-substitutes of his maturity for a scherzo of an individual nature -not a 6/8, but a driving 2/4 movement. Yet its character is surely not without precedent. Just as Brahms had dr awn on the ‘Hammerklavier' Sonata as the starting point for a reinterpretation of a powerful idea, so the deep historical background to this work leads him to draw on the second movement of the late Piano Sonata in A flat op.110 whose thematic outline complements its metrical character in providing his basis. Yet in no other sense does the form relate to tradition, for Brahms constructs a continuous movement, sustained by variation in which the Trio contrast is limited to a very brief passage from bar 178 to bar 198, which simply transforms the character of the opening, to play a part in the broader scheme. And now we are going to make a profound emotional analysis of the symphony.Let us take take the opening. The violins play a melody that starts as a series of two-note sighs, each sigh consisting either of a descending third (for example, B to G) or of the same interval inverted into an ascending sixth (for example, E to C, but going up to the next-highest C rather than down ). Woodwinds echo these figures, but as chords, with the two notes played simultaneously.It is hard for us to think of a lovelier, more inviting opening to a symphony – of course, its familiarity help. Something preparatory, even if it were only two measures of unison B, would help listeners find their way in. This opening is immediately followed by a second statement of the melody, this time in broken octaves and in dialogue between first and second violins, with elaborate decorative material in violas and cellos. This was thought exceedingly difficult to unravel.

Road use charges should be introduced in the UK both for motorways and for urban areas

Whenever we hear today about the problems facing this country and how the government intends to solve them, arguably the three most commonly occurring points for debate on the government's agenda are education, the health system and transport. Transport often comes into focus when high profile incidences involving sub-standard public transport (most notably in recent times involving the railway network) are brought to light. And all this does is reinforce the reasons why many of us choose to use a car to travel in, rather than public transport. Due to the increasing need to use cars, our roads are becoming more and more congested. Now the government, in its position of trying to improve the situation, has to find a solution, which will at least ease the problem. Congestion arises when the volume of traffic exceeds road capacity. This reduces the speed of all vehicles and so increases the average time it takes to complete a particular journey. The congestion mainly occurs at peak times where the demand for the road is at its highest. Particularly when queuing in traffic jams, more people are using the roads, which increases the (marginal) cost of time to other people. Congestion occurs due to the fact that roads are a â€Å"nonexcludable† public good, i.e. no one is excluded from using the roads (based on the assumption that everyone can afford a vehicle, can drive a vehicle, and can afford the additional costs to run a vehicle.) By its definition, when a nonexcludable public good is provided, it affects the welfare of every person in the society. A public good is one where another individual using it will have no effect on the benefits received by others using it (i.e. the marginal cost of someone else consuming it is zero) and theref ore there is no competition for the service). Figure 1;The speed flow curve (Inverse relationship between the number of vehicles on a road and the average speed of vehicles) There are many causes of congestion, which all lead to some economic costs and therefore affect businesses and users of the roads. For a business the consequences of congestion are most likely to be incurred when transporting the goods and raw materials to and from factories and retail outlets. Congestion increases firms' costs, resulting in a lower comparable profit (to the value of profit without congestion) for the firm. Providing the price is inelastic these extra costs could be passed on to consumers in the form of higher market prices (whereby demand for the good is not too sensitive to a change in price). These extra costs can be incurred by either the opportunity cost of time (delays) or direct costs of extra fuel being burned travelling at lower speed. Figure 2: Supply and Demand during congestion for a price elastic good (Congestion costs shift the supply curve to the left, resulting in higher selling price and therefore lower quantity demanded) Supply curve with congestion charges Supply curve without congestion charges Demand curve Congestion may cause delays in delivery, which in turn may lead to various negative impacts on the business itself. For instance this may adversely effect the reputation of the business. Furthermore suppliers to the business may be delayed causing the firm to be less productive incurring unnecessary costs from staff becoming idle. These consequences are an adverse affect on the welfare of the other motorists, (i.e. people most likely become more irritated). Since there is a direct effect here of the actions of one person on the welfare of another person or persons in a way that is not transmitted by market prices, we have the definition of an effect that is called an externality. In economics, public goods and externalities are closely related and are often associated with efficiency problems. Thus this is part of the reason why our roads are â€Å"inefficient†. Congestion also causes the road network to become an impure public good. A public good is defined as one where another individual using it will have no effect on the benefits received by others using it (i.e. the marginal cost of someone else consuming it is zero) and therefore there is no competition for the service. An impure good is one where the consumption of the commodity is to some extent rival. When congestion occurs the use of the road network becomes competitive (especially during the rush hour) and therefore the good becomes impure. This allows the public good to be given a price and so allows schemes such as congestion charging and toll roads to be introduced. Governments across the world are introducing road charges with the goal of reducing road use and minimising the negative effects of road usage. An important decision that the government will take into consideration will be whether introducing road charges would have a negative impact upon the environment. In the capital the Mayor of London, Ken Livingston, is currently asking for the views of 300 groups likely to be affected by road charges to enter London. Despite a London report suggesting a 12% reduction in traffic, opposing parties believe it would cause chaos and adversely effect families and small businesses. Transport is a derived demand as it comes from the needs of the people (whether they are travelling to work, going shopping or meeting socially) and needs of businesses (transportation of goods and industrial materials). However the increasing demand for road use over the years has added to the number of vehicles on the road, and in turn, increases the damaging effects upon the environment. The obvious aim of introducing road charges for using motorways or entering urban areas in private vehicles are that fewer people will choose to do so, thus decreasing the harmful gas engine emissions as a result. Noise and sight pollution, along with air pollution, should also be seen as a result of reduced traffic and congestion. This would rely on the fact that roads have an elasticity that is either inelastic or elastic. The greater the elasticity (value) of these road charges would indicate higher price sensitivity in using the road in question. Establishing the elasticity will enable us to identify the extent to which the environment will benefit from a reduction in pollution (air, gas and noise). From a report by Button (1993) the ‘trip type' significantly affects the price elasticity. For instance travelling to urban areas for shopping purposes has a high elasticity, so if road charges become applicable it is likely that fewer people will decide to make the journey using private vehicles. From an environmental perspective fewer cars entering these urban areas will reduce congestion and vehicle pollution levels. When looking into the decrease of CO emissions for particular areas, such as Hereford as shown above, this illustrates the dramatic reduction in air pollution levels when a charge is applied. This does however depend on price elasticity of demand for the road. This is in comparison to the minimum elasticity for urban commuting (travelling to work) which is much lower. Any road charges imposed on these people will have a minimal effect, as it is more essential for them to travel into the urban area. An additional advantage of road charges is the extra revenue that would be generated through payment of those people who continue to use the particular (charged) road. This has seen positive results in Norway where the funds collected are being used to support the successful public transport areas of Oslo and Trondheim. The biggest environmental concern that road charges are associated with, specifically with motorways, is the likelihood that car drivers would take alternate routes (not charged) such as country roads. These roads that were previously quiet would then be subjected to noise and gas emissions as well as congestion problems. This is an example of the substitution effect as both the main roads and the rural roads could satisfy the needs of the public. The introduction of payment for using the main roads would result in an increase in the quantity demanded of the substitute, that is the rural roads where no charges are being imposed. How elasticity effects the demand for motorways with/without alternative routes (Motorways without alternative routes) (Motorways with alternative routes) From an environmental perspective road charges should be introduced for the vehicles entering the urban areas. This is because there is significant evidence that motor vehicle usage will drop significantly (as shown in the Button 1993 table). The additional revenue raised can be used to fund the much-needed public transport services. Therefore those who will no longer use their own private vehicles will potentially benefit from an improved transport service. Evidence showed that those who continue to travel into the urban areas using private vehicles are also more satisfied if the money they are charged goes into improving public transport (as shown in the MORI diagram). For motorways the decision from an environmental perspective is split between those motorways that have alternative routes and those that do not. On those motorways with possible alternative routes the disadvantages (such as the possible movement of traffic as opposed to reduction) outweighs the potential benefit of the additional revenue. Where alternative routes are unavailable road charges are appropriate as the disadvantages stated above and in the report are much less of a problem. Revenue generated from these charges can then help urban areas with the possible improvement of public transport (like the Norwegian example). If roads were a â€Å"typical† competitive commodity, supply and demand would determine its price and an organization or business would own it. However there isn't a market for roads, and (in places where there are no toll systems in place) people can use the roads for free (i.e. its price is treated as if it was zero). Added to the fact that no one actually owns the roads (the government only has a requirement to maintain them), we have a demand for the usage of the roads by the public, but a failure of a market to emerge. Therefore there is no mechanism to ensure that the resource of roads is used efficiently. Therefore if someone owned the roads and could charge a price for their use, a market would emerge leading to an efficient use of the commodity, because the price reflects the value for alternative uses. Thus through the understanding of how a road is economically defined and the fact that at the moment, it is economically â€Å"inefficient†, a measure has to be taken. Therefore we will now explain using the defining economic principles why road use charges should be introduced for motorways and for urban areas. Arguably, though, the notion of congestion charges is more readily available to be implemented than road tolls, but the economic principles that should guide the design of this policy towards taxing and charging road users also applies to road tolls. The aim of the policy is to find an equilibrium position, where the marginal cost of using the resource is equal to the marginal cost of providing the resource. Figure 4: The equilibrium position and the effect of road charges The graph is labelled with â€Å"level of traffic† on the x-axis and â€Å"generalised cost of driving† (this means that the generalised costs are time and money spent on making the journey) on the y-axis. The first line drawn in was the demand curve (D), which is also the marginal benefit (MB) curve, (which is a straight line). The easiest way to describe it's negative gradient is as the number of people using the road increases, the marginal driver will have a lower benefit from the road than the previous one. There are two costs curves to be added to the diagram. The private marginal costs (PMC) are the direct costs to the driver. The PMC curve is also the supply curve (S). It is an upward sloping curve because with low traffic densities, the only cost to the driver is petrol. However as levels of traffic increase, congestion increases, and thus the driver incurs time costs as well. The social marginal costs (SMC) has the same base as the PMC (i.e. petrol costs) but as traffic increases, not only does it represent the time cost to that one particular driver, there is also the time costs that each driver imposes on every other driver. As is to be expected, at the moment, drivers act according to their PMC curve and the level of traffic on the road increases to the point (Xo), where the PMC is equal to the MB. Thus as the economic theory states, we are at a level of traffic above the social optimum, because the social optimum occurs when the SMC is equal to the MB. This is shown at the point X*, which is the social optimum and the optimal level of traffic. To get the level of traffic reduced from Xo to X*, we have to impose an extra charge or tax â€Å"P† (= P*-Po). This is referred to as the Pigouvian tax amount. This amount (P) forces the road user to take into account the costs of the externality that they are generating, and thus induces them to operate at the efficient level. Since this â€Å"tax† is a congestion charge, it should only be imposed where congestion arises, and the level of charge should be directly related to the amount of congestion. Therefore the inner cities (i.e. urban areas) and motorways, having high levels of traffic, should have higher charges than areas with low levels of traffic. Traffic imposes a cost on society over and above the PMC. To achieve the socially optimal solution, these costs should be passed on to the driver. In doing this, only those drivers who were willing to pay society for the externalities they cause would use the road network. Thus levels of traffic would fall to the optimal output level, reducing congestion and pollution in the desired areas of urban areas and the motorways. It could be argued that if drivers were charged for the delays and road congestion they impose on one another, some of them would arrange to travel at different times, by different means e.g. rail and bus, or arrange to use different routes where road use charges can be avoided completely. There are various technological methods of charging for road uses. The simplest method is buying a license to enter a zone at certain times. The license, like a tax disc, would be prominently displayed with traffic wardens policing the system. However this would mean that only people parked in these zones would get checked; it would not include people just driving through them. To do this, traffic wardens would somehow have to physically stop cars and charge them for entrance into the area. To set this up in the UK would be very difficult with our complicated network of motorways, urban and rural roads and actually stopping cars would cause more congestion rather than reducing it. Another method that uses the new technology of electronic tolls/beacons, no longer requires motorists to halt at tollbooths. As motorists drive past these tollbooths, the toll registers the electronic number plate and sends a signal to a recording computer. This is a very direct way to charge the amount specific to the road and to the time of day with the amount due being deducted from their bank account. However, this would infringe on privacy rights, as it would enable people to derive individuals' locations. Hence the use of smartcards would be more preferable like the method used in Hong Kong. The driver inserts a prepaid card, like a telephone card, into the electronic number plate and payments are debited from it when a tollbooth is passed. Only in a case where the card runs out of credit do the central computer monitors start charging directly for road use. The installation of electronic technology would have the drawbacks of being time consuming and very costly. Not only is there the construction of tollbooths, the installation of smartcards on every single car, but maintenance as well. A type of security system would also be needed to prevent free riders1, for example they could remove the smartcard or tamper with it. A method of overcoming this would be the use of cameras on each booth to capture an image of the license plate if a smart card was not detected. The most technical method, and therefore probably the most expensive, would be satellite car tracking technology. This uses existing Global Positioning System (GPS) satellites to track vehicles via electronic black boxes fixed to the dashboard of all vehicles. The problems associated with using satellites are similar to that of the above; that is the infringement on privacy rights and costs of setup and maintenance. However one possibility with this method is that it can also be used in conjunction with locating stolen cars. From a technical point of view smartcards seem to be the most sensible option. Although it would be more costly than just buying licenses, this method would lead to less congestion, as there is no stopping to enter the areas being charged. It is less expensive than using satellites and would not infringe on privacy rights. However there are difficulties and limitations with implementing any of these road use charging methods; the general public will have to be educated in the use of them, which will be quite complicated due to different regions and the specific times of the day having varying charges. The aim of this report was to analyse the argument that as elsewhere in the world, road charges should be introduced in the UK, both for motorways and for urban areas. On addressing the argument the environmental and the consequential factors of congestion needed to be considered. On considering the environmental factors the conclusion is that the reduction in pollution levels would only occur if the road charges reduced private road use and increased the use for public transport (i.e. there were no alternative routes that people had switched to avoid the charges). However a reduction in congestion on motorways and urban areas could certainly improve a firm's economic profit as the investigation into consequences of congestion revealed. Having decided the obvious need for charges with the economic principles supporting this, whether the application of schemes is technically possible became important. For this factor the smartcard road-charging scheme emerged as the best option. On bringing all these points together road charges are both necessary and feasible for UK motorways and urban areas. Except by environmental perspectives where additionally there have to be few alternative routes, thus preventing people congesting other roads and avoid payment.

Developing a Mission Statement Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Developing a Mission Statement - Research Paper Example The mission statement should portray the vision of the company of how the clients should be seeing it. Generally, mission statements include a business statement, a statement of purpose and signs of the values of the business. The statement of purpose clearly states what the purpose of the company is. For example, a generator company’s purpose is manufacturing of generators. The business statement defines how those generators will be manufactured. The portion of the statement related to values tells us of the common values that are shared all through the company and how these shared values contribute towards the manufactured product. A mission statement is said to be ideal when it is inspirational for the employees. The employees should build upon a good morale and commitment level with the firm after reading the mission statement of the organization. The statement provides a certain direction for the staff as the purpose of their work is highlighted and they can particularly see their own contribution in the value chain. The mission statement should be such from which each employee can personally look at what is his role in the success of the firm (Bart, 2008). A mission statement is a primary instrument that can be as significant as the business proposal. It summarizes, in a few brief sentences, the fundamental nature of the business objectives and the ideas lying beneath the business proposal (Ireland & Hitt, 2007). Likewise, the mission statement indicates what the business is all about to the buyers, employees, sellers and the society. What the Mission Statement Should Portray? The mission statement portrays every aspect of the business: the variety and quality of the products you sell, cost and price, service, its position in the market, capacity for growth, application and usage of technology, and the rapports you have with the buyers, workers, suppliers, rivals and the community. The mission statement should exhibit the special function of the bu siness. Although, examining the mission statements of other companies can stimulate the imagination and creativity (Peyrefitte & David, 2006). The mission statement should be a brief account of the business plan, created from the viewpoint of the customer and should be compatible with the goal of the business (Williams, 2008). The Three Important Questions The mission statement should answer three questions: 1) What do we do? This query should not be responded to with respect to what is actually supplied to the users, but by the emotional desires that are satisfied when consumers purchase the products or services. Consumers’ decision-making process is backed by several reasons that include cost-effectiveness, logistics, and emotions. 2) How do we do it? This query deals with the technological aspects of the business. The response should include the physical product or service and how it is put up for sale, advertised and supplied to users, as well as the customer desires it s atisfies when they purchase it. 3) For whom do we do it? The response to this question is also crucial, as it will facilitate in focusing the advertising efforts. Although many minor business dealers

London Metropolitan University Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2750 words

London Metropolitan University - Essay Example Additionally, Brain Activity will be determined using electroencephalography (EEG). This will be another form of disclosure of confidential or private information. Electroencephalography (EEG) examines brain electrical activity in human brain and it can detect covert processing, a processing without any requirement on responds. Therefore, with this private and confidential disclosure, I would only take into account only participants who volunteer and commit myself to do testing on as far as the project goes and as long as no harm occurs on any of my interviewees or myself. At this stage, I have not yet come across any potential conflicts of interest towards my proposed research project. On the other hand I will not be 100% sure whether there may or may not be any potential conflicts of interest towards my project in the future or not. However, as far as I am concerned, my proposed research project does no harm to participants or myself as one of the volunteers participating in my research project. The risks are potentially minimal since the project involves interviews. However, some participants may be allergic to some materials, including materials that may have been used in making my design objects. Before exposing my research participants to my objects, no matter how common they appear to be, I will ask them if they have any allergic reaction to objects. This way, I will be able to assert with utmost certainty that my project does not harm anyone in any way. The primary objective of this research is to determine the emotional effect of shapes/forms on human brain. Research findings will give an in depth understanding of this important connection and therefore, the use of objects/forms especially jewellery will be optimised to bring positive inner feelings such as inner peace and calm. This will greatly benefit me, participants, and more notably, marketers who can articulate their marketing products to appeal to emotions of their

Easy Proposal Thesis Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Easy - Thesis Proposal Example Interviews and questionnaires will be used to obtain primary data, while financial statements will be used to obtain secondary data. The increased collapse of companies led to an increase in the number of legislation passed to protect businesses and the interests of shareholders (AICPA 6). This has led to an increase in creative accounting, which is the manipulation of financial statements by accountants using their knowledge, in a way that is within the legal restrictions (Beidleman 655). Without rotation of auditors, and with accountants being under the command of managers, they can manipulate them to produce financial statements that do not portray the true and fair view of a firm’s financial performance (Hanno 135). There are various reasons advanced to explain why firms engage in creative accounting. These include a company trying to hide its poor performance in a particular year, or when it is avoiding takeovers (DeZoort, Hermanson and Houston 179). Accounting standards have been revised to try curbing unethical issues in financial statement preparation and improving their integrity. However, managers and accountants have found ways of navigating this regulation; remain within the confines of the law, and produce financial statement that do not reflect the actual position of a company. This has led to such companies experiencing financial strain and others collapsing. The purpose of this study is to find out the impacts that creative accounting has on a company’s financial health. The study will give an insight on the consequences of creative accounting and the negative effects the practice may have on a company’s on-going and future performance. Various scholars have studied different aspects of creative accounting. According to Beasley, creative accounting is used to influence market expectations and increase consumers’ and investors’ confidence in a firm (450).

The Stock Plans Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

The Stock Plans - Essay Example The major difference between the two accounting methods is that the intrinsic value based method overstates the income of the company. This method does not reveal the fair value of the stock, whereas the fair value based method, which is also recommended by FASB is based upon the estimated fair value of the company’s stock. Amount Of Compensation Under a stock options plan, 100 shares were offered to each employee that was purchased or exercised at $45 per share i.e., the grant price. The stock options would cost them $4500 ($45x100). However, the current market price of the stock is $60, which makes $6000 ($60x100) if sold in the market. The shares would obviously be sold on the current market value and hence each employee would get the difference ($6000-$4500) between the grant price and the current market value. The total amount of compensation that each employee would get is $1500 making the total compensation of $3000 paid by the company to two employees. Recording Of Sto ck Options In XYZ’s books The US GAAP requires the companies to expense out the employee stock options on the fair or intrinsic value, as well as disclose it in the company’s financial statements, which is supposed to decrease the company’s earnings significantly. Therefore, an expense will be recorded in the books of XYZ Corporation against the amount of employee stock options as per the accounting practice of FASB and the corresponding expense will be disclosed in the company’s financial statements.

Power and Conflict in the Workplace Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Power and Conflict in the Workplace - Essay Example This paper will discuss how power and conflict arises in a workplace. In a workplace, conflicts are endemic and inevitable. As stated above, there are several issues in a workplace that cannot be ignored. In most cases, these issues are related to the social and personal livelihood of an individual. Thus, these aspects can result to a serious conflict in the workplace. Power in the workplace is considered a vital aspect in the organization. Most organizations have an organizational chart that shows the hierarchy of the employees (Woods, 2010). Research asserts that the continual bickering and conflict within an organization has a severe impact on the business. This is because the relationship between the employees is entirely deteriorated. This highlights that conflict in the workplace is an unavoidable condition. In certain cases, the conflict in an organization can be beneficial. For instance, if the employees have conflicting opinions, the aspect of creativity is substantially enh anced. Conflict in the workplace can also provide a clear insight into some of the weighty issues involving the company (Kusy & Holloway, 2009). However, resolution of conflicts is extremely difficult. The executives of the organization are supposed to identify some of the sources of the conflict to address them properly. There are several sources of conflict including lack of clarity, power struggles, lack of communication, conflict of interest and limited resources among others. According to several scholars, these are the main sources of a conflict in any organization. The employees in most corporations are involved in conflicts when there is the lack of clarity. The aspect of clarity in an opinion related to the organization, which may lead to a turf conflict within the organization (Woods, 2010). Therefore, the executives in an organization are supposed to provide a clear job description to all employees in the organization. Nowadays, most individuals require adequate resources to do their work. Most organizations have even included the employees in the resource allocation process in order to enhance better allocation decisions (Zhang, Dhaliwal & Gillenson, 2011). Furthermore, employees can be involved in conflicts of interest whereby they fight over personal goals. The misunderstanding between the employees can cause a vast setback in the organization. The employees are advised to make sure that their efforts and personal opinions should correspond with the strategic business goals of the organization. In addition, power struggles are also considered as a main source of conflict in most organizations (Gramberg & Teicher, 2006). Power is defined as the force that is used to achieve a set goal. In the contemporary society, the aspect of power is portrayed in a negative way. The need to have control over most of the projects handled in the workplace creates conflicts in the organization. Power struggles can also lead to segregation which entails suspicion, gossiping and ultimate conflict. The election of new executives also leads to various unpredictable policies in the organization (Sorenson, Morse & Savage, 1999). Lack of clear policies enhances conflict. Also, conflict involves exercising the power of an individual to control the resources in the workplace or even influence behavior. For individuals to utilize conflict in a

Apple Company Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Apple Company - Essay Example These factors generate a huge impact on the functioning of the business organisation as a whole. To this end, it must be noted that the business organisation can render effective control over the internal factors pertaining to human, technological and financial resources. On the contrary the external business factors divided along the micro and macro parts remain uncontrollable by the business. External factors like customers and suppliers along with competitors and government bodies and the different environmental events pertaining to political, economic, social, legal and technological landscape affect the organisation in a potential manner. Similarly the international and socio-demographic environment also affect the operations of the business concerns (Jain, Trehan & Trehan, 2009, p.7-14). In regards to the above discussion the essay now focuses on analysing the internal and external business environment of Apple Company. The company has gained a wide recognition in the internati onal market for producing computer and other information technology related products which focus on rendering high amount of sophistication and innovation. This fact enables the company to gain a large market share in the international arena in a much lesser time span (Lliev, Lindinger, & Poettler, 2004, p.6). Internal Environment of Apple Company The internal environment of Apple Computer Incorporation can be studied in respect to the human resource factors. Apple Computer Incorporation works on a strategic mindset while recruiting the proper quality of human resources in order to meet the organisational objectives. The company focuses on enhancing the quality of the workforce to help in enhancing the creative and innovative potential of the concern which thereby augments the productivity and organisational competence. Apple Computer Incorporation’s human resource policies thus strongly focus on gaining the right workforce which would help the company to deliver the best pos sible designs and technological innovations in the products produced. Further the company’s human resource function also renders potential importance in recruiting large amount of people to operate in creating attractive designs and contents on the web. This segment is rendered greater importance by the company for it helps the concern to reach a larger consumer base. Apple Computer Incorporation also reflects a huge potential in controlling the attrition rate of the employees in the concern. Through effective human resource policies the organisation successfully targets to retain key organisational people to help in generating large amount of productivity. The management team of Apple Computer Incorporation strategizes the formulation of organizational mission and visionary principles to help motivate the internal people in achieving stated ends. The visionary and missionary objectives should be strategically formulated by the business concern so as to develop a positive and lucrative image of the concern in the eyes of the principal stakeholders both internal and external. Human resource policies of Apple Incorporation also focus on helping the employees rise up the organisational ladder depending on their productivity and performance parameters. Thus the internal environment structure of the concern is quite amicable for the employees to develop their personal productivity. Another key feature of the human resource policies of Apple Computer Incorporation involves the outsourcing of human resource activities to key external human resource consultants. This function of outsourcing helps the business organisation to better manage the large scale of human resources

Organizational Behavior Essay Example for Free

Organizational Behavior Essay Organizational behavior is the topic and title for many MBA classes and students may not realize the contributing disciplines to OB. An organization can range from the micro to macro level; from youth sports teams, to corporations, and up to state actors(government). Behavior in an organization may be viewed as an individual’s response to his or her environment (internal locus of control), which such disciplines as psychology and anthropology might examine. As well, the type of group culture may be studied by sociologists and the feedback loop of person and group by social psychologists. Out into the external locus of control completely in terms of OB is political science, which may deal with the economy and/or government structure of different institutions and bureaucracies. Emotional Intelligence (EI) is studied extensively in organizations as a compliment to what could be considered â€Å"academic intelligence†. Psychology takes the lead on the subject of EI and understanding EI in the workplace could help to enhance employee performance and decipher the best fit for an individual within an organization. Emotional intelligence (EI) is still a relatively young developmental topic, is gaining in popularity and being marketed to human resource professionals, counseling clinicians, and organizational behavior and development consultants† (Gale Group, August 2003, p. 28). Intelligence, whether it be emotional or â€Å"actual† is as important to understand as the socio-cultural roots of employees within organizations. With such a diverse global workplace, anthropologists need to understand the cultures represented in corporations and ways to best understand the dynamics with other cultures for the benefit of each employee and work group. We are currently experiencing a resurgence of racial antipathy in the U. S. This is clear in various forms of racial oppression and overt acts of racial hostility in communities, in schools and universities, and in the workplace. We can expect these hateful episodes to escalate further if the economy continues to worsen (Eitzen, April 1992, p. 587). This article, anthropological in scope, points to the fact that with problems with the economy, will come problems with power and conflict. Problems with loyalty and trust can, also, ensue in situations were conflict is abundant. Social Psychology deals with, such things as appraisal of self in organizations as well as â€Å"moral development, the group serving bias, and the effect of inducing feelings of hypocrisy on subsequent behavior change† (Seijts Latham, August 2003, p. 233). Social Psychologists, also have a unique way of blending with what is deemed industrial/organizational psychology. Putting all these subfields of psychology and internal process testing at that locus of control is all beneficial to organizational behavior. Trust is a key element of the work of Sociologist Georg Simmel, and his symbolic interactionism approach to relationships. Trust is argued in the article cited below as a sociological, but not psychological phenomenon. Without trust there would be no loyalty to organizations and is most important to understand in organizational behavior. Students of sociological trust’s main motivation is to present trust as a sociological, rather than psychological phenomenon†¦Trust is a functional alternative to rational prediction for the reduction of complexity. Indeed, trust succeeds where rational prediction alone would fail, because to trust is to live as if certain rationally possible futures would not occur. Thus, trust reduces complexity far more quickly, economically, and thoroughly than does prediction (Mollering, 2001, p. 410). Although conflict theory and structural functionalist schools do deal with competition and bureaucracy in organizational behavior, this symbolic interactionist school view is of great importance. Of what greater importance is trust? Finally, political science deals with the most external factors in an organization and with organizational behavior. Although sociological conflict theory overlaps with political science. Economics and political stability are an actor outside of the organization and should be treated as such. Competitive advantage is a part of the political landscape and can be viewed on an individual level with competition with co-workers, as well. Competitive advantage was vested in the mass production process, with factories able to produce large numbers of goods at the lowest price using human labour to undertake repetitive operations that could not be done mechanically† (Business and Management Practices, January 2004, p. 85). All disciplines have something to contribute to organizational behavior studies. The previously mentioned, as well as biology, economics, theology, philosophy, and more. It is one of the rare areas of study that can boast this possibility and should be further explored to continue into a successful 21st global century.

Internal and External Analysis of Pak Electron Ltd

Internal and External Analysis of Pak Electron Ltd Pak electron ltd is the pioneer manufacture of electrical goods. It was establish in 1956 in technical collaboration with M/S AEG of Germany. In October 1978 the group was bought by Saigal Group of Industries. Since its inception, the company has always been contribution towards the advancements and development of the engineering sector in Pakistan by producing hundreds of engineers, skilled workers and technicians through its apprenticeship schemes and training program. The products manufactured by PEL have always been of high standard and the name PEL is synonymous with QUALITY all over Pakistan. Since its inception, the company has been working for the advancement and development of engineering know-how in Pakistan. The company has produced hundreds of engineers, skilled workers and technicians through its apprenticeship schemes training programs. PEL has been continuously adding new products to its range. As a result, PEL has registered a significant increase in its sales volume, during the last ten years. PEL PROFILE Pak Elektron Limited (PEL) is the pioneer manufacturer of electrical goods in Pakistan. It  was established in 1956 in technical collaboration with M/s AEG of Germany. In October  1978, the company was bought by the Saigol Group of Companies. Since its inception,  the company has always been contributing towards the advancement and development of  the engineering sector in Pakistan by introducing a range of quality home appliances and  by producing hundreds of engineers, skilled workers and technicians through its  apprenticeship schemes and training programmers. The company comprises of two divisions: Appliances Division Power Division Appliances Division PELs appliance division is the flag carrier of the Saigol group. This division of PEL consists of Home appliance manufacturing. PEL Air Conditioners PEL window-type air conditioners were introduced in 1981 in technical collaboration with General Corporation of Japan. Ever since their launch, PEL air conditioners have a leading position in the market. PEL air conditioners cooling performance has been tested and approved by Copeland and ITS USA and today PEL holds approximately45% of air conditioners market share. PEL Refrigerators The manufacturing of refrigerators started in 1986-87 in technical collaboration with M/s IAR-SILTAL of Italy. Like the air conditioner, PELs refrigerators are also in great demand. Today, PEL Crystal has 30% market share. Its cooling performance is tested and approved by Danfoss, Germany and its manufacturing facility is ISO 9002 certified by SGS Switzerland. PEL Deep Freezers PEL deep freezers were introduced in 1987 in technical collaboration with M/s Ariston of Italy. Due to their durability and high quality, PEL deep freezers are the preferred choice of companies like Lever Brothers. POWER DIVISION PEL Power Division manufactures energy meters, transformers, switchgears, Kiosks,  compact stations, shunt capacitor banks etc. All these electrical goods are assembled  under strict quality control and in accordance with international standards. PEL is one of the major electrical equipment suppliers to Water and Power Development  Authority (WAPDA) and Karachi Electrical Supply Corporation (KESC), which are the  largest power companies in Pakistan. Over the years, PEL electrical equipment has had been used in numerous power projects  of national importance within Pakistan. PEL has the privilege of getting its equipment  approved and certified from well-reputed international consultants such as: Preece, Cardew and Rider, England Harza Engineering Company, USA Snam Progeti, Italy Societe Dumezm, France Miner Miner International Inc. USA Ensa, France In spite of stiff competition from emerging local and multinational brands, PEL Groups appliances and electrical equipments have remained in the spotlight due to constant innovation. Strategic partnerships with Copeland, Danfoss, Samsung and others have enabled the PEL Group to incorporate new technologies into existing product ranges, thus giving the Pakistani market access to innovative, affordable and quality products. TRANSFORMER PEL has vast experience in design and manufacturing of standard and special purpose transformers up to 33kV and up to 6000kVA ratings. PEL make oil immersed transformers with natural cooling are suitable for both indoor and outdoor installations. These are manufactured according to BSS-171, IEC-76 or VDE-0532 and tropical zed to meet adverse environmental conditions. All our transformers are offered with tabular tank, having a conservator and breather. However, hermetically sealed transformers are also manufactured up to 1000kVA ratings. PEL transformers are available for various applications: Distribution transformers (pole mounted or pad mounted design) Auto transformers Furnace transformers Welding transformers Chokes for furnace transformers Any other special requirement PELs transformers have been successfully type tested for Impulse voltage and short circuit tests at KEMA, (Holland), HVSC Lab, Rawat (Pakistan), NIP (Pakistan) and UET (Pakistan). ENERGY METER Single-Phase Energy Meters: PEL manufactures Electro-mechanical Energy Meters under license from ABB-USA. The quality of PEL meters has been certified by KEMA Laboratories (Holland) and conforms to IEC 521, SGS Yarsley, and U.K., has certified PEL Energy Meter plant for ISO 9002. PEL type MC8 is a direct connection single-phase meter. The design and constructional features include overload compensation and temperature compensation, thus providing maintenance-free operation over a long period and accurate measurement of electrical energy. The frame is sturdy in construction and the covers are available in unbreakable polycarbonate plastic material. Poly-Phase Energy Meters: PEL type TBL is a direct connection poly-phase meter having improved load performance and precision accuracy over a wide load range. All meter parts are corrosion protected for long-term reliability. It has a magnetic bearing system that is self-cleaning, non-aging and tamper resistant. This ensures virtually frictionless operation of the rotor while withstanding abuse from surges and magnetic tampering. The meter is available with one-piece high impact polycarbonate cover. The terminal cover is extended type that completely shrouds the service cable. History of Refrigerator In 1748 Dr.William Cullen did first experiment in artificial refrigeration. In the early 1800s, Michael Faraday discovered the liquefying ammonia gas which causes cooling. IN 1804, Oliver Evans, and American design the first refrigeration machine. In 1834, Jacob Perkins, an American invented the refrigerator in London. In 1844, an American physician, Oliver Evinces built a refrigerator to make ice to cool the air. In 1874, Raoul Picked of Switzerland, invented a a compressor system using sulphur dioxide instead of ammonia. In 1876, German engineer, Carl Von Linden made the process of liquefying gas, basic refrigerator technology. In 1915 Alfred Mellows starts to build first self container refrigerator for home use. In 1920 there were some 200 different refrigerators in the market. In 1922 Baltzar Von Platen and Carl Munters introduce absorption process refrigerator. Refrigerator from the late 1800s until 1929 used the toxic gases, ammonia and methyl chloride and Sulphur dioxide as refrigerant. In 1931 the first air cooled refrigerator launched by Electrolux. In 1947 GE launched two door refrigerators freezer combination. In 1955 80% of American homes now have refrigerators. Throughout the 1960s to 1970s house hold refrigerators were improved to better suit consumers. According to the history channel, today refrigerators are more energy efficient With the advancement of technology from this era to current era, now, there is quick change in the styles and quality. Timeline of Air Conditioning Events Here is a timeline of historical facts about the development of the air-conditioning industry you may find interesting and help you appreciate the impact this important industry has on our lives. 1882 Thanks to Thomas Edison, the first electric power plant opens in New York, making it possible for the first time to have an inexpensive source of energy for residential and commercial buildings. 1889 Central station refrigeration is used in large cities to preserve foods and documents. 1902 Willis Carrier builds the first air conditioner to combat humidity inside a printing company. Controlling the humidity in printing companies and textile mills was the start of managing the inside environments. 1906 Willis Carrier patents his invention calling it an Apparatus for Treating Air. 1906 Stuart W. Cramer coins the term Air Conditioning. 1913 The first international exposition devoted exclusively to refrigeration is held in Chicago. 1917 The first documented theater to use refrigeration is the New Empire Theatre in Montgomery, Alabama. In that same year, the Central Park Theater in Chicago is built to incorporate the new technology: air conditioning. 1928 The Chamber of the House of Representatives is air conditioned. 1929 The Senate is air conditioned. 1930 The White House, the Executive Office Building, and the Department of Commerce are air-conditioned. 1942 The Potomac Electric Power Company (PEPCO) becomes the nations first summer peaking utility. 1946 After World War II, the demand for room air-conditioners begins to increase. Thirty thousand room air-conditioners were produced that year. 1947 Air conditioning becomes a bargaining issue when textile workers in North Carolina strike because of stressful heat and humidity in the workplace. 1950 A major study shows that families living in air conditioned homes sleep longer in summer, enjoy their food more, and have more leisure time. 1953 Room air conditioner sales exceed one million units with demand still exceeding supply. 1953The air conditioning and refrigeration institute is formed from two associations: the Refrigeration Equipment Manufacturers Association and the Air-Conditioning and Refrigerating Machinery Association. 1955 Mass marketing of frozen dinners begins: ads promote TV dinners. 1957 The first rotary compressor was introduced, permitting units to be smaller, quieter, weigh less, and more efficient than the reciprocating type. 1969 Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin walk on the moon in spaces suits with life support and cooling systems. 1977 New technology allows heat pumps to operate at lower outdoor temperatures while heating on the reversed refrigeration cycle. 1987 The United Nations Montreal Protocol for protection of the earths ozone layer is signed. The Protocol establishes international cooperation on the phase-out of stratospheric ozone depleting substances, including the chlorofluorocarbon (CFC) refrigerants used in some refrigeration and air conditioning equipment. 1990 ARI, in conjunction with the U.S. Department of Energy, initiates the Materials Compatibility Lubricants Research (MCLR) program, which helps manufacturers to 21 accelerate away from CFC refrigerants. 1992 The R-22 Alternative Refrigeration Evaluation Program (AREP) begins a four- year program to investigate alternatives to R-502 and HCFC-22. 1995 Chlorofluorocarbon (CFC) production in the United States ends December 31. 1997 North American Technician Excellence (NATE) formed to promote excellence in technicians who install and service air-conditioning and refrigeration equipment. The NATE-certified logo is synonymous with The Best. 1998Research for the 21st centaury a multi-year, million-dollar research program for air-conditioning and refrigeration equipment begins. The objective is to decrease building energy usage while improving indoor air quality. 1998 Shipments of unitary air conditioners and heat pumps set a record of more than 6.2 million Units. 1998 After receiving five annual awards from the U.S envoi mental protection agency for contributions to environmental protection, ARI was awarded a Best of the Best award for continued environmental concern. Organizational Departments Finance department Marketing department Sales department Trading department Consumer marketing department Credit control department Customer service department Human resource management department Distributions department Quality control department Department working Finance Department: Finance department provide money for the working of the organization. Pel companys department borrows loan mainly from national bank and settle terms and conditioned of the interest and time period of returning the load with it. when the sale is made the company firstly return the loan with interest. Human Resource Department: Human resource department of the Pel Company is very much conscious of hiring the employees for the company. The standards he set for hiring the new poople.HRM department of the company mainly makes the external recruitment .this is usually done through news paper web sites extra.HRM department also set salaries, packages and TA, DA allowances. Marketing Department: Marketing department is the back bone of any firm. marketing department generally analyze the needs and wants of the customer. Then this department tells about the customer needs to the company which in tern launches the products according to the needs of the customers. Marketing department is responsible for making strong advertisement for the products. Sales Department: Sales department is responsible for making sales of the product. This department generally takes orders from the market, gives information to the credit control department. Area credit control department gives information to the head office. Head office discuss situation with the finance department and then at last finance department gives authority to area credit control department to settle term and conditions with dealers. Customer service center department: This department is very much important for the company because its makes the good will of the company. It provide services to the customers who have their clams and makes the customer loyal. It also gives the feed back to the head office to provide the required spare parts. Consumer Marketing Department: Consumer marketing department gives packages to the person who has low income to attract them to purchase their products. They have their own area offices. This department works under credits control departments. Trading Department: This department is involved for importing products. This department imports the required products according to the demand of the customer such as split unit. This department is controlled by its head, which works directly under the head office. This department sends terms and condition of trade to the head office and finance department for the financing. Production Department: Production department is involved only producing the products. This department purchases raw material from the suppliers. Then pass the raw material from various dyes machines, modelling machines etc; from the assembly line according to the required shapes of the products. Distribution department: This department distributes the final products from the production department to the dealers and then ultimately to the consumers. This department is only responsible for distributing products according to the requirement and demand of the sectors. Managerial Functions Planning Refrigerator: Planning is very much important function of the management.PEL company makes the planning regarding refrigerator by observing the market. How much a company can sales in a particular segments there any chance of growth is also in the planning of the company refrigerator. Split Unit: The company planning regarding split unit firstly is the observation of the market. Then after observation how much to import the split units. Finance and trading department also give suggestion for planning regarding split unit .Then set their plans according to the requirement. Organizing Refrigerator: The organizing regarding refrigerator how to make availability of refrigerator assured. Taking in the account the policy regarding refrigerator of the company how much to produce and when to produce etcà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Almost all the department are involved in organizing and also how much margin to give to the dealers. Split Unit: While organizing the company takes into account that the last year sales and how much to sale in a particular area. Mainly quality control, finance department and trading department are involved in organizing for how much to import, when to import,where to import etcà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ Leading Reference: Head office mainly leads all departments regarding refrigerator .All the sub ordinate department officers lead the related department and employees and loyal to the head office for their working. Their is check and balance situation for every department. Split Unit: Head office mainly leads all the related department of the split units. Trading department is mainly the leader in split unit case for importing it and direct reliable to the head office. For leading it also give its requirement to its head office for finance and for the quality control of the product. Controlling Refrigerator: Controlling is the main functions after making the pervious steps. Managers of the each department control its own department working and are liable to the managing director. There is check and balance situation. In controlling, monthly and annual basis analysis are made. How much sale is made and for the betterment of the product research and development department then do its job. Split Unit: In controlling of the split units, trading department mainly control the import of the splits units. it checks the quantity of the units and quality control department checks the quality of the split units before launching it in the market. Strategic Management Model Environmental Scanning Environmental scanning is the monitoring, evaluating and discriminating of information from the external and internal environment to keep people within the corporation. The company scans the environment in the following way: General Forces: It includes: Political Legal Forces: PEL Company is very much conscious about the political and legal environment of the country. The company changes its labor wages which is registered whenever a govt. changes the labor laws. Technological Forces: PEL Company tries to adopt the future technology for using in the product. They always keep in view the technology for increasing the quality of the product for their customers. On the basis of modern technology, company is the market leader regarding the appliances. Economic Forces: Economic forces means change in disposable Income, flections in the market, inflation, change in rate of interest etcà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Company always keep in mind the economic conditions of the country and sets its prices accordingly. Social Cultural Forces: It includes environmental concerns, work life quality attitudes and also work force diversity etcà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦PEL Company keeps in view the social culture changes of the country and sets its target accordingly. Task Environment: It Includes: Customers: PEL Company customers include various government organization such as wapda and Karachi power company regarding power divisions.PEL Company has also an internal and external customers. Internal customers are those who are the employees of the company which dont makes big affect on the sales. External customers are those which are the outsides the company such as general pubic except employees. Suppliers: PEL Company has its suppliers regarding its appliance division are Abdullah and Heartz, Star enterprises, Pals codes system. Etcà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦and have its suppliers regarding split unit from china. Competitors: PEL Company has its competitors like Dawlance, Waves, LG, Haier etc. PEL Company makes close analysis of its competitors to understand its strategies and to overcome its deficiencies. Public Pressure Groups: There is no public pressure group which affect the working of the company because PEL Company makes product by viewing all its aspects which dont affect the societal environment of the economy. Internal Environment Structure: Company has very systematic structure; the information flows from top to low bottom and from bottom to top mean mechanistic style have rigid chain of command. Culture: The company has strong culture. Employees work in teams and have set great expectation and values for the incoming employees. Resources: It includes: Assets Heavy Machinery, Skill full Employees etcà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ Skills Labour skills, employee skill etcà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ Competences Quickly responsible to competitors Knowledge Half and annually based training. Strategy Formulation Mission Objective Company has its objective regarding refrigerator to be number 1 in the market in the coming three years. Company also set the objective to make the split units in the factory in future. Strategy Company has a comprehensive master plan to achieve its mission and objectives. Company is trying to stabilize its market share regarding its refrigerator and split unit and also want its growth in the future. Policies Company has its policy to maintain the quality of its products at lower cost and provides the consistent value satisfaction to the customer. Strategy Implementation Strategy implementation is the process in which strategy and policy are put into the action through the development of program, budgets and procedures. Program Program is the statement of the activity of the steps needed to accomplish a single use Plan.PEL Company has a program to make split units in its own factory. Budgets A budget is a statement of the corporation program in term of money. In Planning and controlling list the detail cost of each program. Company set a budget for making split unit in its own company and its also for having advertising. Procedures Sequential steps to complete program known as procedure. Companys program for making split units includes procedures .How much to purchase from supplier at which cost. Evaluation Control It is the process in which cooperates activity and performance results are monitored so that actual performance can b compared with the desired performance.PEL Company makes the evaluation by acquiring the information at all level from managers. And then they take the step for controlling the situation if it is not matching with the desired performance. Business Analysis SWOT Analysis SWOT stands for strength and weakness of an organization in the light of opportunities and threats outside the organization. Strength Refrigerator: Company has its strength in refrigerator. Customer loyalty Trade and experienced staff Usage of Vinyl coating material Compressor quality (DAN FOSS Germany) Splits Units: Company has its Strength in Split Units. Low cost from others Better cooling Low power consumption Weakness Refrigerator: Company has its weakness in refrigerator. No uses of compressor drain try No use of drain tries Splits Units: Company has its weakness in Split Unit Cooling problem Opportunity Refrigerator: Company has the opportunity Can increase it sales due to loyalty Can import due to its name Splits Units: Companies have the opportunity To make split units Control prices Can increase its market share Threats Refrigerator: Companies have the opportunity Competitors can produce similar products New foreign companies Reduction of prices PEST ANAYLSIS Political Political or legal forces means law and order situation in the country. Countrys policies for the trading companies. Political and legal situation regarding PEL Company is stated as Refrigerator: Registered Labours Increase wages when govt. changes Labour policies No political affects Splits Units: No pressure from political parties Economical Mean economic condition of the country such as change in dispose bale income, fluctuation in market, inflation rate etcCompany sets the prices according to the economic situation of Pakistan. Refrigerator: Middle and upper class Generally in inflation situation buying power decreases Reduction of prices Reduce of quality Splits Units: Cost of product is main thing Social Refrigerator: Employees Work in Shifts. No Women in Work Force. Employees are well settled according to the culture Split Unit: Socially no affect Technological Refrigerator Technology Affects The Working OF A Company. Company Adopts Modern Technology Receives Feedback. Split Unit: Use of modern Of Technology. Quality Checking. POTERs 5 Model Bargaining Power of Supplier Bargaining power of PEL Companys suppliers is comparatively low due to the large number of supplier such as Abdullah and hearts, Pals Codes system etcà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ Bargaining Power of buyer PEL Company have high bargaining power as compare to suppliers due to presence of many suppliers. Threat Of New Entrant There is always a threat of new entrant. PEL Company is facing a threat from foreign a local companies. Existing firms PEL Competitors like Dawlance, Waves and LG can reduce its appliances products prices. Threat Of Substitute Product Dawlance, Waves, LG etcà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦can produce substitute products at low rates which is threat for the company. BCG Matrix Refrigerator: Refrigerator is placed in star box because it has high share and market growth. Refrigerator has 45% of the market share and also increasing its market growth. Split Unit: Split unit is also placed in star box due to high market share and market growth. Split unit has 30%of the market share and continuously increasing market growth. Marketing Research Pictures Marketing MIX PRODUCT PRICE PLACE PROMOTION Product Product is a thing that satisfies customer demands. Pel Company is very much conscious to make the products which satisfy the customer needs. Company makes the product: According to the needs of the customer What kind of size and model they want What kind of features and functions they want What kind of packaging they want Price Price is very much important because it attracts the customer in first look. PEL Company is very much conscious about price. Company sets the prices of the products by Analyzing the market situation Actual cost of the product Marketing expenses of the product Profit margin of the company Comparison to other home appliances Setting deal with dealers Place Place plays a very important role for any companys product. If the product is not rightly placed, company will suffer from loss. Company places its product: According to the requirement of customer and market In more populated area of the city Against competitors products More convenient to the customers Promotion Once company makes the product, it needs promotion for the awareness of the customers. Unless a company will not arrange for promotion a products cant succeed. PEL Company promotes its product through: Bill Boards Internet News paper Brushers Television ISO Detail There are some requirements that the PEL Company fulfill to get the ISO certificate. International Standard Practices Total Quality Management Good Management practice Key Force Competitive Teamwork State Of The Art Production Commitment For Quality Efficiency Monitoring Process Zero Defect Group Profile In 1948, The Saigols Migrated From Calcutta Initiated Their Business In Lyallpur(Later Named Faisalabad) Under The Banner Of Kohinoor Industries Ltd. Kohinoor Textile Mills. Pak Elektron Ltd. Kohinoor Power Company Ltd. Kohinoor Energy Ltd. Kohinoor Motor Works Ltd. Saigol Computer Pvt. Ltd. Saritow Spinning Mills The Azam Textile Mills. Completely Import Export Imports Refrigerator: In refrigerator there is Usually No Import because the PEL Company manufactures it own refrigerator. Some Time PEL Company Import Spare Parts on the Requirement of need. Split Unit: PEL Company Import split unit From China. It completely import the splitunit because they do not manufacture the split unit. Export In split unit there is no export because PEL Company totally import the split unit. Future Plans Prospects There is only one future plan and that is: They want to manufacture the split unit in own company. Suggestions Recommendations After the visit of the PEL Company and check the complete management functions we suggested to the PEL Company to do 1. More aggressive advertisement 2. To manufacture the split units in their own company